Introduction
Monarchy, a form of government, is characterized by the rule of a single individual, typically referred to as the monarch or king/queen. Unlike other systems such as democracies or republics, where power is distributed among multiple officials or elected representatives, monarchy entails concentrated authority inherited through bloodline or marriage.
The monarch serves as the head of state and often remains in power until death or voluntary abdication. Monarchies can vary in their degrees of absolute power; some adhere to constitutional limitations that curtail the monarch's authority while others grant almost unlimited control. Historically, the monarchy has been prevalent throughout history, fostering stability and continuity but also occasionally stifling progress and allowing dictatorial tendencies if unchecked.
Functions of monarchies
A monarchy is made up of two separate but connected entities - a government and a state government on one side, and a court with a bunch of different ceremonies on the other - that keep the royals, their cronies, and the elite socialized. So, a monarchy isn't just a political-administration organization, it's also a "court society." This term was first used by the 20th-century German sociologist, Norbert Elias, to describe different classes of nobility (e.g., the British nobility) who are connected to the royal family (or "royal" house, like the House of Windsor), through a network of personal connections. All these connections are shown off in both symbolic and ceremonial ways.
At some point in the history of a given society, certain events and processes occur that lead to the development of a monarchy. Since warfare was the primary method of obtaining fertile soil and trade routes, many of the greatest monarchs of the ancient world began their reigns as warrior-leaders. For example, the military achievements of Octavian, (later Augustus), led to his ascension to the throne and the institution of a monarchy within the Roman Empire.
The development of infrastructure and state-building was also a factor in the formation of monarchies. As is typical of arid cultures, the distribution of fertile land and the management of a regime of fresh-water distribution (which the German American historian Carl Wittfogel referred to as hydraulic civilization) played a role in the establishment of the great dynasties of China, Egypt, and Babylonia (on the banks of rivers). Monarchs also had to demonstrate themselves as builders of states.
Monarchies also come from the desire of a society, whether it's a city population, a tribe, or a multi-tribe “people,” to have an indigenous leader who can properly represent its past successes and promote its interests. So, monarchies are based on the culture and symbols of the society they represent, and in doing so, they both reinforce that identity inside the society and project it to the outside world. Most importantly, great and popular monarchs believed they had a holy right to rule. Some were gods (like the pharaohs and the Japanese monarchs) while others were crowned by priests or appointed by prophets (like King David of Israel) or theocrats (like the theocrats who ran both the religious and the political aspects of their society, like the 7th-century caliph of the Islamic state). Because of these diverse backgrounds, leaders first came to power because of their skills and charisma. As a result, many ancient monarchies developed into small city-states and later into large empires, with the Roman Empire being a prime example.
Premodern monarchies
The Middle Ages saw the development and transformation of European monarchies. The early Middle Ages saw the emergence of the theocratic theocracy, which was based on both Roman and Christian traditions, and led to the assumption of the role of the king as God's representative on earth. The early medieval monarchs ruled as rulers of the people (not as territorial lords) and each person was responsible for the protection of their people. In the eleventh century, the theocratic claims were challenged by the 11th-century Gregorian Reform and its associated Controversy, and the monarchs, particularly the emperors, turned to Roman law as a new source of justification for their right to govern.
Throughout the Middle and late Middle Ages, monarchs came to power through conquests, acclamations, elections or inheritance. The courts of the medieval monarchs were initially private households, but from the twelfth century on, they became formal and institutionalized bureaucratic structures. The 12th century also saw the evolution of the kings into rulers of the people and of the territories with defined boundaries. The development of territorial monarchies laid the groundwork for the concept of the nation-state.
The Islamic Monarchy, also known as the Caliphate, was distinct from European monarchies in that it was a unified, theocratic institution that combined religious and lay responsibilities. In contrast, in the case of Japan, the Monarchy ceded absolute power to the Shogunate, which technically was under the control of the Emperor, but in reality was ruled by the Shogun, a powerful warlord. Efforts to achieve this position frequently led to inter-dynastic conflicts. Similarly, in China, the Monarchy developed into a centralized bureaucratic entity, which was held by a series of dynasties.
Monarchies have been challenged by different opposition movements. The British monarchy could handle religious conflicts and social unrest in the countryside and cities, but the French (1789-1917), Russian (1917-1911), and Ottoman (1911-1922) monarchies were wiped out by popular social uprisings. After WWI, the Austro-Hungarians, Germans, and Ottomans all collapsed due to a military defeat and were replaced by nationalist movements. This showed that monarchies can only survive if they have strong nationalist and popular support.
Monarchy in the modern era
In 1804, Bonaparte made himself Emperor of France and ratified the act through a popular referendum. He then introduced a new form of monarchy called the "nationalist monarchy," where he ruled in the name of the nation's nationalist aspirations and fight for independence. He based his reign on the French Revolution's instruments, like the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. But Bonaparte was also an absolute monarch who put his family members in power in several European countries that he ruled over.
Nationalist monarchies began in Europe and spread to other countries around the world. The 19th and 20th centuries saw the emergence of new monarchs in Greece, the Arab provinces (especially Egypt and Syria), and states that had won their independence from the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian-Hungarian Empire (See Austria-Hungary) The new monarchs wanted to emphasize the modernity of their nations and used their imperial titles as a symbol of modernization, even though they wanted to compete with established, important monarchs like the British Royal Family. However, their political power was limited: political institutions did not take root in society under their rule and economies remained relatively weak.
The nationalist monarchs, unable to satisfy the demands of the mass societies, were unable to withstand the massive opposition movements that characterized the mid-twentieth century. These movements were anticolonialist, nationalistist, or Marxist in nature. They saw all the monarchies as the remains of an ancient, outmoded order that must be destroyed. The monarchs were accused of social ills, political ills, and economic ills, and were overthrown. The monarchies acquired the image of a failed, obsolete system.
By the turn of the century, however, examples of such traditional monarchies had largely disappeared from the Arab world, with the exception of six oil-producing states bordering on the Persian Gulf: Kuwait (1961), Saudi Arabia (1962), Bahrain (1963), Qatar (1965), the UAE (1968), Oman (1969), and Jordan (1973). The longevity of these states can only be partly explained by their abundance of oil revenue, which allowed their rulers to suppress opposition groups. After all, Jordan and Morocco were not oil-rich monarchies, but they were among the sturdiest in the region, and the fact that many enjoyed American and British military assistance certainly contributed to their resilience to external threats (as in the case of Kuwait in 1960 and more explicitly in the 1990–91 Persian Gulf War).
Morocco and Jordan are similar in that they're both monarchies, but the two have different reasons for being successful. In Morocco, the king is a very important religious figure. Jordan's Hashemite government has been around for a long time, thanks to the political genius of Hussein bin Ali (1953–99) who made sure the family had political power. The ruling families in the Persian Gulf countries have been successful in building a strong state by introducing tech and social progress while maintaining a conservative political climate.
